Sleep disorder

Sleep disorders 

-insomnia 

Reoccurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy 

- characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks 

-lapses directly into REM sleep ( usually during times of stress or joy )

Sleep apnea 

- a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakening 

Night terrors 

- a sleep disorders characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified 

- occurs in stage 4 not rem 

Sleepwalking 

- sleep walking most often occurs during deep non-rem sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep ) early in the night 

Dreams 

- a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person mind 

Manifest 

- the remembered storyline of a dream

Latent

-the underlying meaning of a dream

Why do we dream ?

Freud wish fulfillment theory 

-dreams are key to understanding 

-ideas and thoughts that are hidden in our unconscious 

Information processing theory 

-dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day 

-rem sleep does increase after stressful events 

Activation synthesis theories

- during the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity 

Stages of sleep

Stage 1

-kind of awakeful and kind of asleep

- only last a few minutes and you usually only experiences it once a night 

-eye begin to roll slightly 

-your brain produces theta waves ( high amplitude, low frequencies)

Stage 2 

-this follow stage 1 sleep and is the baseline of sleep

-this stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies aproxiamtely 45-60 of sleep

Sleep spindles, short burst of brain waves

Stage 3 and 4

- slow wave sleep

- you produce delta waves

- if awaken you will be very groggy

- vital for resorting body growth hormones and good overall health

Last 15-30 min

REM sleep 

- rapid eye moment 

-brain is very active 

- dreams usually occur in REM

- composes 20-25% of a normal night of sleep

- breathing, heart rate, and brain wave actively quicken 

Sleep

Sleep 

-is a state of consciousness 

-we are less aware of our surrounding 

Biological rhythm 

-annual cycle (seasonal variations )

-28 day cycle ( menstrual cycle )

-24 hour cycle ( circadian Rhythm)

-90 minute cycle ( sleep cycle) 

Circadian rhythm 

- 24 hours biological clock

- our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day

- it is best to take a test or study during your circadian peak

Sleep stages 

- there are 5 identified stages of sleep 

- it takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages 

- the brain waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in 

-the first 4 stages are known as  NREM sleep

- the fifth stage is called REM sleep  

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning 

- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment 

Classical vs operant 

-they both use the 5 things "ADSGE"

-classical is automatic (respondent behavior). Dogs automatically salivate over meat, then bell no thinking involved 

-operant involves behavior where one can influence their environment 

With behavior which has consequences 

Edward thorndike

- law of effect rewarded behavior is likely to recur 

BF skinner 

Shaping 

-a procedures in operant conditioning in which reinforcers guide behaviors closer and closer towards a goal

Reinforcers 

- ant events that strengthen the behavior it follows 

2 types of reinforcement 

- positive and negative 

Positive reinforcement 

- strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response 

Negative reinforcement 

-strengthen a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus

Primary reinforcer

- an innately reinforcing stimulus 

Conditioned reinforcer (secondary )

-a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcers 

Continuous reinforcement

-reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs 

Partial reinforcements 

-reinforcing a response only part of the time 

- the acquisition process is slower

-greater resistance to extinction 

Fixed ratio schedule 

-a schedule that reinforces a responses only after a specified # of responses 

Variable-ratio schedule 

- a schedule reinforcement that reinforces a response 

Fixed interval schedule 

-a schedule reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed

Variable-interval schedule 

- a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable times intervals 

Punishment 

-meant to decrease a behavior 

Positive 

-addition of something unpleasant 

Negative

- removal of something pleasant 

Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh 

Token economy 

- every time a desired behavior is preformed, a token is given 

- they can trade tokens in for a variety o prizes (reinforcers)

-used in homes, prison, mental institution, and school

Observation learning 

-Albert bAndura and his bobo doll

- we learn through modeling behavior from others

- observation learning + operant conditioning = social learning g theory 

Latent learning 

-Edward Toleman 

-sometimes learning is not immediately evident 

Insight learning 

- Wolfgang Koehler and his chimpanzees 

- aha moments . Learning through experience 

Storage

Storage 

Iconic memory

- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a photograph like quality lasting only about a second 

Echoic memory 

- the auditory stimuli 

Storage and short term memory 

- last usually between 3-12 seconds 

- 7 digits 

Long term potential ion 

- long lasting enhancement in signal transmitting between two neurons that results from stimulation them synchronously

-in other words they learn to fire together and get better at it creating a 

Hippocampus 

-damage to the hippocampus disrupt our memory 

-left, verbal

-right, visual and sorting 

Proactive interference 

- the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information 

Retroactive interference 

-the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information 

Absolute Advantage

Absolute advantage 

- individual 

Exist when a person can produce more of a certain good/ service than someone else in the same amount of time 

-national 

Exist when a country can produce more of a good/service than another country in the same time period

Comparative advantage

-exist when an individual or nation can produce a good/service at a lower opportunity cost than another nation or individual

Input problem vs output problem   

Input- what can be produced using the least amount of resources." Land, or time" 

Chosen item / forgone item 

Output- deals with production. Lowest opportunity cost. 

What they give up/ what is produced 

Absolute advantage - faster 

Comparative - lower opportunity cost 

Purchasing power

Purchasing power parity- when the currency are set by international markets changes will based on the actual purchasing power of the currency 

Ex. If the U.S. Dollar to the euro rate is 1.5 to 1 then each 1.50 will buy one euro 

However if a item in the U.S. Cost a dollar a 1.50 the cost more and less than 1 euro then the parity is lost

Markets will adjust quickly in floating rates . Or pressure for change will change in fixed rates 

Why do we exchange currency 

1. 

2. Invest in other countries stocks and bonds 

3.build factories or stores in other counties

4. Speculate on currency values

5. To hold currency in bank account for future imports and exports in future loans 

6. Control excessive imbalances 

Dollar appreciation

Dollar appreciation 

- each dollar gets you more of the other currency. 

-more of the foreign currency is needed to buy each dollar 

-US exports gets more expensive for foreigners 

-US imports get cheaper for us 

-Exports down

- Imports Up 

- GDP down 

- demand for the U.S. Dollar will increase

-supply for the U.S. Dollar will decrease

Dollar Depreciation 

-each dollar gets you less of the other currency 

-exports increase

-imports decrease 

-GDP increase

-U.S. Exports become cheaper to buy

- us imports become more expensive to buy 

-demand for the U.S. Dollar will decrease

-supply for the U.S. Dollar will increase 

Supply of the U.S. Dollar comes from.

US citizen

Banks 

Industries wanting make foreign purchases 

Investments 

Assets 

 Making transfer payment to foreigner  

Demand from the U.S. Dollar comes from 

Foreigner

Banks

Industries wanting to buy us goods 

Investments 

Make transfers payments to us  

Formulas

Formulas 

Balance and trade 

Goods and services exports - goods and services imports

Trade deficit 

Imports > Exports

Trade surplus 

Exports > imports 

Informal way

Good exports + goods imports 

Balance of trade

Goods imports + service imports

Current account

Balance of trade + net investment + net transfer 

Capital account 

Foreign purchases of US assets + US purchases of assets abroad 

Official reserves 

Capital account balance + current account balance   

Balance of Trade

Balance of trades or net exports 

Exports of goods - imports of goods

Exports create a credit to the balance of payments 

Imports create a debit 

Net foreign income 

- income earned by U.S. Owned foreign assets - income paid to foreign held US asset 

Net transfers 

-foreign aid -> a debit to the current account 

Capital/ financial accounts

-the balance of capital ownership

- includes the purchase of both real and financial assets 

-direct investment in the united states is a credit to the capital account 

-direct investment by the U.S. firms/ individual a foreign country are debuts to the capital account 

Capital/financial account 

- purchase of foreign financial assets represents a debit to the capital stock 

- purchase of domestic financial assets by foreigner represent a credit to the capital account 

Relationship between current and capital account 

- the current account and the capital account should zero each other out 

- that is ... If they current account has a negative balance (deficit) then the capital account should then have a positive balance (surplus)

Official reserves 

-the foreign currency holdings of the U.S. federal reserve system

- when there is a balance of payments surplus the fed accumulates foreign currency and debits the balance of payments 

- when there is a balance of payments deficits the fed depletes its reserves of foreign currency and credits the balance of payments 

- the official reserves zero out the balance of payments 

Active vs passive official reserves 

- the U.S. Is passive in its use of official reserves. It doesn't seek to manipulate the dollar exchange rate

- the people republic of China is active in its use of official reserves. It actively buys and sells dollars in order to maintain a steady exchange rate writhing the U.S. 

Balance of Payments

Balance of payments 

Measure of money inflows and outflows between the US and the rest of the world.

Inflows- are credits 

Outflows- are debits 

The balance of payments is divided into 3 accounts .

- capital accounts

- currents accounts

- official reserves 

Double entry booking -

Every transaction in the balance of payments is recorded twice in accordance with standard accounting practice 

Current accounts-

Supply side economics

Supply side Eco - belief that as curve will determine levels of inflation, unemployment, and economic growth 

To increase the economy shift the as curve to the right.

They focus on the marginal tax rate 

Marginal tax rate - amount paid on the last dollar earned. For each additional dollar earned 

Lower taxes are an incentive for a business to invest into the economy 

Lower taxes are an incentive for workers to work hard, thereby becoming more productive

Lower taxes are an incentive for people to increase saving, there for create lower interest rate which causes an increase in business investment 

Supply side support policy that promote GDP growth

By arguing that high marginal tax rates along with with current system or transfer payments, such as unemployment compensation or welfare programs provide disc incentivize to work, invest, innovate, and undertake entrepreneur adventures 

Reagan economics 

Laffer  curve- trade off between taxes 

Used to support supply side argument 

As tax rates increase from 0, tax revenue from 0 to some maximum level and then decline  

3 critics   

1. Research suggest impact of tax rate on incentives, to work, save, and invest are small 

2. Tax cuts also increase demand which can fuel inflation,  thus creating a situation where demand exceed supply

3. Where the economy is actually

Located on the curve is difficult to

Determine . 

Phillips curve

Phillips curve- represent the  U employment 

Lrpc- occurs at the natural rate of unemployment . 

Represented by a vertical line. 

No trade off between unemployment and inflation in the LR. 

The economy produces at the full employment level. 

Lrpc will only shift if the LRAS curve shifts 

The major lrpc consumption is that more worker benefits create higher natural rates and fewer worker benefits produce lower natural rates 

Srpc, there is a trade off between inflation and unemployment that only occurs during the short run 

Has relevance to Okun law

Since wages are sticky, inflation changes move the points on the srpc.

If inflation persist and the expected rate of inflation then the entire srpc moves upward which causes the situation called stag flation 

If inflation expectation drop, due to new technology or economic growth then the srpc will move downwards. 

Aggregate supply shocks cause the rate of inflation and unemployment to increase 

Supply shocks - rapid and significant increase in resource cost

Misery index- is a combination of inflation and unemployment in any given year . Single digit misery is good  

Nominal wages

Time to short, for prices to adjust to the price level 

Workers may not be aware of changes in there real wages due to inflation and have adjusted their labor supply decision in wage demand accordingly 

Nominal wages- amount of money received per hour, per day, or per year. 

Sticky wages- nominal wage level that is set according to an initial price level and doesn't vary 

Time long enough for wages to adjust to the price level 

1. Price level and wage level are flexible 

2. Changes in wage and price level off set each other